collins
05-07-2002, 10:55 AM
http://www.oneidasfordemocracy.org/Weare.htm
Oneida: A Historical Journey
by - Doug George-Kanentiio
For the past few years the Onyata, aka "People of the Standing Stone" or Oneidas of Madison County have played an increasingly large role in the economic affairs of central New York. While much has been reported about the Oneidas in the newspapers, the following information should give readers a better understanding of the Oneidas.
We are told the Oneidas were part of a larger Iroquois family which originated in the American southwest thousands of years ago. The migration to the northeast took many hundreds of years to complete but ended when the Iroquois entered present day New York at the confluence of the Oswego River and Lake Ontario.
From there the Iroquois separated into six distinct groups settling throughout the region. The Mohawks created a homeland along the Mohawk Valley followed, east to west, by the Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas and Senecas. The sixth group journeyed far to the south, finally ending up in the North Carolina area. These were the Tuscaroras, a native nation which retraced its steps to their ancient homelands in the year 1712 after losing a bitter war with English colonists. Oneidas refer to themselves as the "Standing Stone" because they had, in each of their villages, a large rock they would gather around to hold their ceremonial activities. The Mohawks are referred to as "People of the Flint", the Onondagas are "People of the Hills", the Cayugas are "People of the Swamp", the Senecas call themselves "People of the Great Hill" and the Tuscaroras are the "Shirt Wearing People".
Originally, the Oneidas lived in an area which stretched from the St. Lawrence River to northern Pennsylvania and from the Chittenango Creek-Tioughnioga River on the west to the Unadilla River-West Canada Creek on the east. Total area for the aboriginal homeland of the Oneida Nation is estimated to be about 3,600,000 acres.
Oneida life in pre-European times was centered around their villages. They were primarily agricultural with crops such as corn, beans and squash forming the greater part of their diet. They enjoyed a rich spiritual life with a major ceremonial gathering during each lunar month.
Clans were essential to the orderly flow of Oneida culture. All social, political and religious functions were dependent upon the clans, as was the distribution of material goods. There were three clans: Bear, Wolf and Turtle. Each clan appointed three female leaders (clanmothers) and three male leaders (rotiiane or "chiefs") to the national government. Also, each clan selected a man and a woman to serve as advisors on spiritual matters. These were/are the faithkeepers.
All leaders were nominated by the clanmothers and were subject to ratification by their respective clan. They served for life unless impeached by their clans for such violations as insanity, greed, assault, rape, treason and incompetence, among others. The clan might also indicate they have no confidence in a leader or he/she might by their own actions commit crimes which violate their oath of office thereby removing themselves from office.
With regards to a rotiiane his clanmother would give him three cautions to rectify his behavior. At the third such 'warning' she was accompanied by a young man who would, upon her instructions, remove the rotiiane's deer antler headress, which was his symbol of office.
Once removed, such a person was considered as "walking dead", without voice in the people's affairs or ever to be entrusted with any type of influence or power. They might also be banished from Iroquois territory either permanently or for a set period of time.
In order to function as a qualified leader the candidate had to have a secure and stable home life, a solid marriage, be willing to accept the criticisms of the people (his skin was to be "seven spans thick"), live simply and without thought of personal enrichment, have considerable knowledge as to the traditional spiritual values of the community and be an active participant in all of the ancient rituals.
Once selected as a candidate by the clan the prospective leader had to be endorsed by the Oneida national government (but not each individual member) then by the Grand Council of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy at a ceremonial called "Condolence" which the Council might elect not to do if they disapproved of the candidacy thereby sending the entire process back to the respective nation for a repeat of the selection process.
For many generations the Oneidas prospered in their ancestral lands but with the arrival of the colonists int he northeast they endured considerable cultural stress. Devastating epidemics of European borne smallpox and influenza killed hundreds of thousands of Native people in the east and the Iroquois suffered periodic plagues resulting in displacement, disorganization and chaos.
In the 1600's the Iroquois endured a century of warfare as the native nations in the northeast fought to reestablish political and economic power. The Confederacy engaged in brutal struggles with the Eries, Susqeuhannas, Algonquins, Crees, Chippewas, Illinois, Hurons, Mahicans, Abenkais and others until a general peace was secured in 1701.
Also enveloped in this war were Dutch, English and French settlers who, in some instances, adopted a policy of playing one native nation against the other as the Europeans sought to expand their seacoast land base.
The Oneidas were quick to adopt the new technologies brought to the region from across the sea. Firearms, tools and ornaments found a ready market in Oneida as the natives brought their furs for exchange to markets in Montreal and Albany. The Iroquois derived great political power by controlling the fur trade along with material prosperity.
But the Oneidas were feeling the pressure of expanding European settlement; they watched with growing alarm as the Mohawks were driven north to the St. Lawrence River to escape the colonists. Likewise, small groups of Oneidas also went north but to seek easier access to the Catholic church since many of them had converted to Christianity. Oneidas settled across the river from Montreal in 1660 and in the 1730's established a community called Oswegatchie near present day Ogdensburg, NY.
During the American Revolution the Oneidas desired neutrality but were drawn into the conflict when their homelands were invaded by both American and British forces. In addition, the Rev. Samuel Kirkland was an influential advocate for the rebels and used his authority to divide the Oneidas, many of whom actively fought for the US.
After the war, the Oneidas believed they would, because of their loyalty, have their lands secured but New York State adopted a policy of alienating Iroquois land by intimidation, threats, bribery and outright fraud.
Through a series of highly controversial, and illegal, transactions New York assumed control over most of Oneida territory resulting in the displacement of the Oneida people. When US President Thomas Jefferson sought to remove all Natives west of the Mississippi, the Oneidas felt they had no choice but to secure their survival by finding refuge far from the settlers.
Led by a Mohawk preacher named Eleazer Williams, most of the Oneidas left their homelands beginning in 1820 for territory among the Menominee Nation in eastern Wisconsin. This group was primarily Christian while another so-called "pagan" faction elected to form a community on the Thames River near London, Ontario. Another group chose to live on the Onondaga Reservation south of Syracuse while a fourth, the Marbel Hill Oneidas, refused to leave and held on to their few acres outside of Sherrill, NY.
Throughout the 19th century the Oneida lands in New York were gradually whittled away by New York in violation of federal law. Although the Oneidas complained vigorously not until 1985 would the merits of their case be upheld by the US Surpeme Court. During those dark years the idea of the Oneidas returning home to live on an expanded land area was kept alive by a few individuals.
In the 20th century patiots such as Mary Winder and her sister Delia Waterman filed numerous petitions to the US government to seek justice for their cause. While Mary Winder died in 1952, her sister continued to press the government. In 1972 the Oneidas remaining in New York filed legal action in the US courts before finally prevailing 13 years later.
With the arrival of commercial gambling in Indian country in the late 1970's the Oneidas sought to create an economic base by opening a small bingo hall which was later expanded. Throughout the 1980's, however, intense internal struggles for control of the Oneidas resulted in violent clashes, recriminations and arson.
In 1977 the Grand Council of the Haudenosaunee acknowledged three individuals, Lyman Johns, Richard Chrisjohn and Arthur Raymond Halbritter, as messengers for the Oneida people residing in Central New York. With the death of Johns and Chrisjohn, Halbritter assumed unilateral powers and created an organisation called the "Men's Council"; a decision made without the approval of the Oneida people and condemned by the Grand Council.
In April, 1993 Halbritter concluded secret negotiations with New York Governor Mario Cuomo resulting in a gaming compact to open a casino on disputed territory. The Grand Council of the Haudenosaunee stripped Halbritter of his status as an Oneida spokesperson which then ratified by the US Department of the Interior on August 10 then rescinded a day later after the intervention of US Rep. Sherwood Boehlert (R-NY) a sponsor of Halbritter and gambling advocate.
Halbritter moved to create a 54 member, completely non-Native police force to consolidate his power on Oneida territory. Using US government funds, Halbritter built a housing project and offered expanded social services to gain support.
In August 1993 the Turning Stone Casino opened to quickly become the largest single employer in Oneida County. The Halbritter regime refused to comply with the 1988 Indian Gaming Act by supplying the National Indian Gaming Commission with audits from 1993-1996. Not unitl the Commission threatened to close the casino did the Halbritter regime aquiesce and submit a report, yet despite efforts by the Oneidas to obtain a financial accounting of the casino operations they have yet, as of May, 1999, to see such a document.
On March 20th, 1995 the Wolf Clan members of the Oneida Nation gathered to meet at their Longhouse to find the locks had been changed. The non-Native police officers were instructed to arrest anyone trying to enter. They moved the meeting to the Wolf Clan Mother's log cabin (Maisie Shenandoah) where the Wolf Clan members decided to remove Ray Halbritter as their Representative due to the numerous injustices done against the Oneida people.
The Halbritter regime responded by stripping the "dissidents" of their status as Oneidas resulting in a loss of employment, health insurance, educational allowances, quarterly stipends and all other Oneida Nation services.
In 1996 the traditional Oneidas, or the Onyata:aka, initiated suit in US federal court to have Halbritter, deemed a US citizen, removed as Oneida representative. The complaint was dismissed at the Distirct level but appealed at the Second Circuit which found sufficient evidence to order a hearing in the US Department of the Interior to determine Halbritter's status. The hearing is pending as of May, 1999.
This article is copyright © 1999, Doug George-Kanentiio
-----------------------------------------
This story above sounds so typical of what I have experienced and what others that I have spoken or corresponded with have experienced all throughout Native America. There should be a law/rule that if someone is born of a tribe that alone determines tribal membership and recognition. We have too many people in power that should not even be near leadership responsibilities. They use the phrases such as "we have to think of the whole tribe" and yet in action they cut off huge portions of the tribe in the name of preservation. Sounds misguided, cruel, and greedy to me. Not the way in which to preserve and continue our culture.
----------------------------------------- www.nativetech.org/Nipmuc/praytown.html (http://www.nativetech.org/Nipmuc/praytown.html)
THE
"PRAYING TOWNS"
Nipmuc Indian Association of Connecticut
Historical Series - Number 2
Second Edition 1995
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In Memory of the Nipmuc Ancestors
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE "PRAYING TOWNS"
BACKGROUND
In 1646, Reverend John Eliot first preached to Indians at a site he later called Nonantum ('Place of Rejoicing') in present-day Newton, MA. Making converts to Christianity there, Eliot became encouraged by the possibility of gradual religious, social and political integration of all Indians into colonial society. Eliot continued his efforts to convert Indians, becoming known as the 'Indian Apostle'.
Waban (at Natick, MA) was the first Indian chief to embrace Christianity, and entertained John Eliot in his wigwam when Eliot first went among the Nipmuc as a preacher in their own language on October 28, 1648. By 1650, Indian converts to Christianity had begun moving to Natick to organize what would become the first of several villages known as "Praying Towns", with the Indians in them known as "Praying Indians". Here, as in all of the Praying Towns which followed, Indians would renounce their native language, ceremonies, beliefs, traditional dress and customs -- effectively becoming 'Red' Puritans. Natick was also the place where young educated Indian men would be trained as missionaries and sent out to convert more Indians and to establish additional Praying Towns.
John Eliot's Rules of Conduct for the Praying Indians (eight additions to the Decalogue) were as follows:
I. If any man shall be idle a week, or at most a fortnight, he shall be fined five shillings.
II. If any unmarried man shall lie with a young woman unmarried, he shall be fined five shillings.
III. If any man shall beat his wife, his hands shall be tied behind him, and he shall be carried to the place of justice to be punished severely.
IV. Every young man, if not another's servant, and if unmarried, shall be compelled to set up a wigwam, and plant for himself, and not shift up and down in other wigwams.
V. If any woman shall not have her hair tied up, but hang lose, or be cut as a man's hair, she shall pay five shillings.
VI. If any woman shall go with naked breasts, she shall pay two shillings.
VII. All men that shall wear long locks, shall pay five shillings.
VIII. If any shall crack lice between their teeth, they shall pay five shillings.
By about 1660, Eliot had seen seven new Praying Towns established in Nipmuc territory, including three which existed in present-day Windham County, Connecticut. In his Report to the Governor and Council Concerning the Indians of the Commonwealth (Boston, 1861.), John Milton Earle states: "These Indians were visited in July, 1663, by the Apostle Eliot, accompanied by Hon. Daniel Gookin, who informs us, that "the seven new praying towns, in the Nipmug country, under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, began to harken to the gospel about three years since, or thereabouts." They were visited again in September, 1674, for the purpose of settling teachers and establishing civil government among them. The following three Praying Towns, all of which were located in present-day northeastern Connecticut, are listed among the seven visited.
THE "PRAYING TOWNS" OF NORTHEASTERN CONNECTICUT
MAANEXIT - Located on the Quinebaug River near the old Connecticut Path to and from Massachusetts, the Praying Town called Maanexit held 100 Nipmuc men, women and children. The Indian John Moqua was installed as minister at Maanexit in September, 1674. Maanexit is believed to have been located in present-day Fabyan, in the Town of Thompson.
Maanexit (also spelled Mayanexit) is a Nipmuc word meaning either "where the road lies" or "where we gather", depending on what the proper root word was.
QUINNATISSET - The Praying Town called Quinnatisset was located about "6 miles south of Maanexit" (on Thompson Hill, near the center of the town?). It, too, held 100 Nipmuc people. Daniel, a young Indian schooled at Natick, was installed as minister for Quinnatisset in 1674.
Quinnatisset, another Nipmuc word, means "little long river" or "long brook".
WABAQUASSET - The largest of the three northeastern Connecticut Praying Towns, Wabaquasset held 150 people from 30 Nipmuc families. It was located 6 miles west of the Quinebaug River in present-day Woodstock. Sampson and Joseph (only sons of Petuhanit, sachem of Hassanamesit - now Grafton, MA) came to Wabaquasset as Christian missionaries and preached throughout the area for four years. Sampson lived at Wabaquasset and, under his direction, wigwams were built "the like of which were seen in no other part of the country". It is reported that the longhouse there measured 60' long by 20' wide; and a ripening crop of corn there in 1674 would yield no less than 40 bushels to an acre!
John Eliot (in Mass. Arch., Indians, i. 146) spelled the name of this Praying Town Wabuhquoshish, a Nipmuc word meaning at the place where we make "mats for covering the house". The name originally belonged to a certain place where Nipmuc women obtained flags used to weave mats.
WHERE DID THEY G0?
The start of King Philip's War on June 20, 1675 -- initiated by Pometacom, Great Sachem of the Wampanoag Federation -- marked the demise of the Praying Towns in northeastern Connecticut. Anti-Indian sentiment raged throughout central New England. Nipmuc elders, women and children may have fled to safety in the Praying Town at Okommakamesit or with other tribes; or, they may have been among the nearly 400 Indians (whose able-bodied men were drawn into the war) who were left on Long Island to suffer from lack of adequate food and shelter.
The Nipmuc brothers Sampson and Joseph, who had spent some 4 years preaching and organizing. Praying Indians in northeastern Connecticut, became scouts for the English. They received a certificate from English Captain Thomas Wheeler on August 20, 1675 commending them for their courage and faithfulness.
But Sampson was slain during the War. And Joseph was taken prisoner in Plymouth Colony, MA, sold for a slave to some merchants at Boston, and sent to Jamaica. His two children were taken prisoner with him, and his wife was taken captive. John Eliot later redeemed Joseph's wife and sons. Eliot also intervened and had Joseph brought back to Massachusetts; but Joseph was still held as a slave.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Return to NIAC Publications Page
Return to NIAC Home Page
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
© 1996-2001 N.I.A.C., Inc. NipmucNIAC@juno.com
The NIAC Web Site is maintained by Tara Prindle.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
This story of assimilation still carries itself forward into today and is the one of the greatest causes of infighting and control grabing. If all Native Peoples could just read and learn our histories then perhaps they would realize what is at work in the continued destruction of our people and culture.
Oneida: A Historical Journey
by - Doug George-Kanentiio
For the past few years the Onyata, aka "People of the Standing Stone" or Oneidas of Madison County have played an increasingly large role in the economic affairs of central New York. While much has been reported about the Oneidas in the newspapers, the following information should give readers a better understanding of the Oneidas.
We are told the Oneidas were part of a larger Iroquois family which originated in the American southwest thousands of years ago. The migration to the northeast took many hundreds of years to complete but ended when the Iroquois entered present day New York at the confluence of the Oswego River and Lake Ontario.
From there the Iroquois separated into six distinct groups settling throughout the region. The Mohawks created a homeland along the Mohawk Valley followed, east to west, by the Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas and Senecas. The sixth group journeyed far to the south, finally ending up in the North Carolina area. These were the Tuscaroras, a native nation which retraced its steps to their ancient homelands in the year 1712 after losing a bitter war with English colonists. Oneidas refer to themselves as the "Standing Stone" because they had, in each of their villages, a large rock they would gather around to hold their ceremonial activities. The Mohawks are referred to as "People of the Flint", the Onondagas are "People of the Hills", the Cayugas are "People of the Swamp", the Senecas call themselves "People of the Great Hill" and the Tuscaroras are the "Shirt Wearing People".
Originally, the Oneidas lived in an area which stretched from the St. Lawrence River to northern Pennsylvania and from the Chittenango Creek-Tioughnioga River on the west to the Unadilla River-West Canada Creek on the east. Total area for the aboriginal homeland of the Oneida Nation is estimated to be about 3,600,000 acres.
Oneida life in pre-European times was centered around their villages. They were primarily agricultural with crops such as corn, beans and squash forming the greater part of their diet. They enjoyed a rich spiritual life with a major ceremonial gathering during each lunar month.
Clans were essential to the orderly flow of Oneida culture. All social, political and religious functions were dependent upon the clans, as was the distribution of material goods. There were three clans: Bear, Wolf and Turtle. Each clan appointed three female leaders (clanmothers) and three male leaders (rotiiane or "chiefs") to the national government. Also, each clan selected a man and a woman to serve as advisors on spiritual matters. These were/are the faithkeepers.
All leaders were nominated by the clanmothers and were subject to ratification by their respective clan. They served for life unless impeached by their clans for such violations as insanity, greed, assault, rape, treason and incompetence, among others. The clan might also indicate they have no confidence in a leader or he/she might by their own actions commit crimes which violate their oath of office thereby removing themselves from office.
With regards to a rotiiane his clanmother would give him three cautions to rectify his behavior. At the third such 'warning' she was accompanied by a young man who would, upon her instructions, remove the rotiiane's deer antler headress, which was his symbol of office.
Once removed, such a person was considered as "walking dead", without voice in the people's affairs or ever to be entrusted with any type of influence or power. They might also be banished from Iroquois territory either permanently or for a set period of time.
In order to function as a qualified leader the candidate had to have a secure and stable home life, a solid marriage, be willing to accept the criticisms of the people (his skin was to be "seven spans thick"), live simply and without thought of personal enrichment, have considerable knowledge as to the traditional spiritual values of the community and be an active participant in all of the ancient rituals.
Once selected as a candidate by the clan the prospective leader had to be endorsed by the Oneida national government (but not each individual member) then by the Grand Council of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy at a ceremonial called "Condolence" which the Council might elect not to do if they disapproved of the candidacy thereby sending the entire process back to the respective nation for a repeat of the selection process.
For many generations the Oneidas prospered in their ancestral lands but with the arrival of the colonists int he northeast they endured considerable cultural stress. Devastating epidemics of European borne smallpox and influenza killed hundreds of thousands of Native people in the east and the Iroquois suffered periodic plagues resulting in displacement, disorganization and chaos.
In the 1600's the Iroquois endured a century of warfare as the native nations in the northeast fought to reestablish political and economic power. The Confederacy engaged in brutal struggles with the Eries, Susqeuhannas, Algonquins, Crees, Chippewas, Illinois, Hurons, Mahicans, Abenkais and others until a general peace was secured in 1701.
Also enveloped in this war were Dutch, English and French settlers who, in some instances, adopted a policy of playing one native nation against the other as the Europeans sought to expand their seacoast land base.
The Oneidas were quick to adopt the new technologies brought to the region from across the sea. Firearms, tools and ornaments found a ready market in Oneida as the natives brought their furs for exchange to markets in Montreal and Albany. The Iroquois derived great political power by controlling the fur trade along with material prosperity.
But the Oneidas were feeling the pressure of expanding European settlement; they watched with growing alarm as the Mohawks were driven north to the St. Lawrence River to escape the colonists. Likewise, small groups of Oneidas also went north but to seek easier access to the Catholic church since many of them had converted to Christianity. Oneidas settled across the river from Montreal in 1660 and in the 1730's established a community called Oswegatchie near present day Ogdensburg, NY.
During the American Revolution the Oneidas desired neutrality but were drawn into the conflict when their homelands were invaded by both American and British forces. In addition, the Rev. Samuel Kirkland was an influential advocate for the rebels and used his authority to divide the Oneidas, many of whom actively fought for the US.
After the war, the Oneidas believed they would, because of their loyalty, have their lands secured but New York State adopted a policy of alienating Iroquois land by intimidation, threats, bribery and outright fraud.
Through a series of highly controversial, and illegal, transactions New York assumed control over most of Oneida territory resulting in the displacement of the Oneida people. When US President Thomas Jefferson sought to remove all Natives west of the Mississippi, the Oneidas felt they had no choice but to secure their survival by finding refuge far from the settlers.
Led by a Mohawk preacher named Eleazer Williams, most of the Oneidas left their homelands beginning in 1820 for territory among the Menominee Nation in eastern Wisconsin. This group was primarily Christian while another so-called "pagan" faction elected to form a community on the Thames River near London, Ontario. Another group chose to live on the Onondaga Reservation south of Syracuse while a fourth, the Marbel Hill Oneidas, refused to leave and held on to their few acres outside of Sherrill, NY.
Throughout the 19th century the Oneida lands in New York were gradually whittled away by New York in violation of federal law. Although the Oneidas complained vigorously not until 1985 would the merits of their case be upheld by the US Surpeme Court. During those dark years the idea of the Oneidas returning home to live on an expanded land area was kept alive by a few individuals.
In the 20th century patiots such as Mary Winder and her sister Delia Waterman filed numerous petitions to the US government to seek justice for their cause. While Mary Winder died in 1952, her sister continued to press the government. In 1972 the Oneidas remaining in New York filed legal action in the US courts before finally prevailing 13 years later.
With the arrival of commercial gambling in Indian country in the late 1970's the Oneidas sought to create an economic base by opening a small bingo hall which was later expanded. Throughout the 1980's, however, intense internal struggles for control of the Oneidas resulted in violent clashes, recriminations and arson.
In 1977 the Grand Council of the Haudenosaunee acknowledged three individuals, Lyman Johns, Richard Chrisjohn and Arthur Raymond Halbritter, as messengers for the Oneida people residing in Central New York. With the death of Johns and Chrisjohn, Halbritter assumed unilateral powers and created an organisation called the "Men's Council"; a decision made without the approval of the Oneida people and condemned by the Grand Council.
In April, 1993 Halbritter concluded secret negotiations with New York Governor Mario Cuomo resulting in a gaming compact to open a casino on disputed territory. The Grand Council of the Haudenosaunee stripped Halbritter of his status as an Oneida spokesperson which then ratified by the US Department of the Interior on August 10 then rescinded a day later after the intervention of US Rep. Sherwood Boehlert (R-NY) a sponsor of Halbritter and gambling advocate.
Halbritter moved to create a 54 member, completely non-Native police force to consolidate his power on Oneida territory. Using US government funds, Halbritter built a housing project and offered expanded social services to gain support.
In August 1993 the Turning Stone Casino opened to quickly become the largest single employer in Oneida County. The Halbritter regime refused to comply with the 1988 Indian Gaming Act by supplying the National Indian Gaming Commission with audits from 1993-1996. Not unitl the Commission threatened to close the casino did the Halbritter regime aquiesce and submit a report, yet despite efforts by the Oneidas to obtain a financial accounting of the casino operations they have yet, as of May, 1999, to see such a document.
On March 20th, 1995 the Wolf Clan members of the Oneida Nation gathered to meet at their Longhouse to find the locks had been changed. The non-Native police officers were instructed to arrest anyone trying to enter. They moved the meeting to the Wolf Clan Mother's log cabin (Maisie Shenandoah) where the Wolf Clan members decided to remove Ray Halbritter as their Representative due to the numerous injustices done against the Oneida people.
The Halbritter regime responded by stripping the "dissidents" of their status as Oneidas resulting in a loss of employment, health insurance, educational allowances, quarterly stipends and all other Oneida Nation services.
In 1996 the traditional Oneidas, or the Onyata:aka, initiated suit in US federal court to have Halbritter, deemed a US citizen, removed as Oneida representative. The complaint was dismissed at the Distirct level but appealed at the Second Circuit which found sufficient evidence to order a hearing in the US Department of the Interior to determine Halbritter's status. The hearing is pending as of May, 1999.
This article is copyright © 1999, Doug George-Kanentiio
-----------------------------------------
This story above sounds so typical of what I have experienced and what others that I have spoken or corresponded with have experienced all throughout Native America. There should be a law/rule that if someone is born of a tribe that alone determines tribal membership and recognition. We have too many people in power that should not even be near leadership responsibilities. They use the phrases such as "we have to think of the whole tribe" and yet in action they cut off huge portions of the tribe in the name of preservation. Sounds misguided, cruel, and greedy to me. Not the way in which to preserve and continue our culture.
----------------------------------------- www.nativetech.org/Nipmuc/praytown.html (http://www.nativetech.org/Nipmuc/praytown.html)
THE
"PRAYING TOWNS"
Nipmuc Indian Association of Connecticut
Historical Series - Number 2
Second Edition 1995
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In Memory of the Nipmuc Ancestors
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE "PRAYING TOWNS"
BACKGROUND
In 1646, Reverend John Eliot first preached to Indians at a site he later called Nonantum ('Place of Rejoicing') in present-day Newton, MA. Making converts to Christianity there, Eliot became encouraged by the possibility of gradual religious, social and political integration of all Indians into colonial society. Eliot continued his efforts to convert Indians, becoming known as the 'Indian Apostle'.
Waban (at Natick, MA) was the first Indian chief to embrace Christianity, and entertained John Eliot in his wigwam when Eliot first went among the Nipmuc as a preacher in their own language on October 28, 1648. By 1650, Indian converts to Christianity had begun moving to Natick to organize what would become the first of several villages known as "Praying Towns", with the Indians in them known as "Praying Indians". Here, as in all of the Praying Towns which followed, Indians would renounce their native language, ceremonies, beliefs, traditional dress and customs -- effectively becoming 'Red' Puritans. Natick was also the place where young educated Indian men would be trained as missionaries and sent out to convert more Indians and to establish additional Praying Towns.
John Eliot's Rules of Conduct for the Praying Indians (eight additions to the Decalogue) were as follows:
I. If any man shall be idle a week, or at most a fortnight, he shall be fined five shillings.
II. If any unmarried man shall lie with a young woman unmarried, he shall be fined five shillings.
III. If any man shall beat his wife, his hands shall be tied behind him, and he shall be carried to the place of justice to be punished severely.
IV. Every young man, if not another's servant, and if unmarried, shall be compelled to set up a wigwam, and plant for himself, and not shift up and down in other wigwams.
V. If any woman shall not have her hair tied up, but hang lose, or be cut as a man's hair, she shall pay five shillings.
VI. If any woman shall go with naked breasts, she shall pay two shillings.
VII. All men that shall wear long locks, shall pay five shillings.
VIII. If any shall crack lice between their teeth, they shall pay five shillings.
By about 1660, Eliot had seen seven new Praying Towns established in Nipmuc territory, including three which existed in present-day Windham County, Connecticut. In his Report to the Governor and Council Concerning the Indians of the Commonwealth (Boston, 1861.), John Milton Earle states: "These Indians were visited in July, 1663, by the Apostle Eliot, accompanied by Hon. Daniel Gookin, who informs us, that "the seven new praying towns, in the Nipmug country, under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, began to harken to the gospel about three years since, or thereabouts." They were visited again in September, 1674, for the purpose of settling teachers and establishing civil government among them. The following three Praying Towns, all of which were located in present-day northeastern Connecticut, are listed among the seven visited.
THE "PRAYING TOWNS" OF NORTHEASTERN CONNECTICUT
MAANEXIT - Located on the Quinebaug River near the old Connecticut Path to and from Massachusetts, the Praying Town called Maanexit held 100 Nipmuc men, women and children. The Indian John Moqua was installed as minister at Maanexit in September, 1674. Maanexit is believed to have been located in present-day Fabyan, in the Town of Thompson.
Maanexit (also spelled Mayanexit) is a Nipmuc word meaning either "where the road lies" or "where we gather", depending on what the proper root word was.
QUINNATISSET - The Praying Town called Quinnatisset was located about "6 miles south of Maanexit" (on Thompson Hill, near the center of the town?). It, too, held 100 Nipmuc people. Daniel, a young Indian schooled at Natick, was installed as minister for Quinnatisset in 1674.
Quinnatisset, another Nipmuc word, means "little long river" or "long brook".
WABAQUASSET - The largest of the three northeastern Connecticut Praying Towns, Wabaquasset held 150 people from 30 Nipmuc families. It was located 6 miles west of the Quinebaug River in present-day Woodstock. Sampson and Joseph (only sons of Petuhanit, sachem of Hassanamesit - now Grafton, MA) came to Wabaquasset as Christian missionaries and preached throughout the area for four years. Sampson lived at Wabaquasset and, under his direction, wigwams were built "the like of which were seen in no other part of the country". It is reported that the longhouse there measured 60' long by 20' wide; and a ripening crop of corn there in 1674 would yield no less than 40 bushels to an acre!
John Eliot (in Mass. Arch., Indians, i. 146) spelled the name of this Praying Town Wabuhquoshish, a Nipmuc word meaning at the place where we make "mats for covering the house". The name originally belonged to a certain place where Nipmuc women obtained flags used to weave mats.
WHERE DID THEY G0?
The start of King Philip's War on June 20, 1675 -- initiated by Pometacom, Great Sachem of the Wampanoag Federation -- marked the demise of the Praying Towns in northeastern Connecticut. Anti-Indian sentiment raged throughout central New England. Nipmuc elders, women and children may have fled to safety in the Praying Town at Okommakamesit or with other tribes; or, they may have been among the nearly 400 Indians (whose able-bodied men were drawn into the war) who were left on Long Island to suffer from lack of adequate food and shelter.
The Nipmuc brothers Sampson and Joseph, who had spent some 4 years preaching and organizing. Praying Indians in northeastern Connecticut, became scouts for the English. They received a certificate from English Captain Thomas Wheeler on August 20, 1675 commending them for their courage and faithfulness.
But Sampson was slain during the War. And Joseph was taken prisoner in Plymouth Colony, MA, sold for a slave to some merchants at Boston, and sent to Jamaica. His two children were taken prisoner with him, and his wife was taken captive. John Eliot later redeemed Joseph's wife and sons. Eliot also intervened and had Joseph brought back to Massachusetts; but Joseph was still held as a slave.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Return to NIAC Publications Page
Return to NIAC Home Page
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
© 1996-2001 N.I.A.C., Inc. NipmucNIAC@juno.com
The NIAC Web Site is maintained by Tara Prindle.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
This story of assimilation still carries itself forward into today and is the one of the greatest causes of infighting and control grabing. If all Native Peoples could just read and learn our histories then perhaps they would realize what is at work in the continued destruction of our people and culture.